11) All of the following are possible steps of scientific investigation except for ________. A) the collection of scientific facts through observation and measurement B) assumption of conclusions without prior experimentation or observation C) the development of one or more working hypotheses or models to explain facts D) development of observations and experiments to test the hypotheses 12) ________ rocks form by crystallization and consolidation of molten magma. A) Sedimentary B) Indigenous C) Primary D) Igneous 13) ________ rocks always originate at the surface of the solid Earth. A) Secondary B) Igneous C) Metamorphic D) Sedimentary 14) During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, direct observations showed that a glacier in Switzerland flowed forward in the downhill direction while its snout (terminus) was retreating higher up the valley. Which of the following explains these observations in a rational, scientific way? A) Cooler temperatures meant slower forward glacier flow resulting in snout retreat. B) The glacial hypothesis was finally accepted as a scientific theory. C) Rocky debris in the valley downhill from the snout was deposited by Noah’s flood. D) The melting rate of ice in the glacier exceeded the rate at which new snow and ice were added to the glacier. 15) In correct order from the center outward, Earth includes which units? A) core, inner mantle, outer mantle, crust B) inner core, outer core, mantle, crust C) inner core, crust, mantle, hydrosphere D) core, crust, mantle, hydrosphere 16) The ________ refers to the sum total of all life on Earth. A) hydrosphere B) atmosphere C) biosphere D) asthenosphere 17) A(n) ________ system is one in which energy moves freely in and out, but no matter enters or leaves the system. A) closed B) open C) feedback D) equilibrated 18) ________ is often paraphrased as “the present is the key to the past.” A) Biblical prophecy B) Uniformitarianism C) Aristotelian logic D) Catastrophism 19) ________, a popular natural philosophy of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, was based on a firm belief in a very short geologic history for Earth. A) Ecospherism B) Exoschism C) Uniformitarianism D) Catastrophism 20) The ________ proposes that the bodies of our solar system formed at essentially the same time from a rotating cloud of gases and dust. A) Big Bang theory B) Plate Tectonics theory C) Nebular hypothesis D) Heliocentric theory